How close are we to electrochemical ammonia?Can we make fertilizer directly with electricity?
or, simply: Can we make fertilizer directly with electricity?or, precisely: How close are we to electrochemical ammonia?
Verified lithium-mediated cells now combine high selectivity with continuous operation, but no system has simultaneously demonstrated industrial current density, energy efficiency, scale and lifetime.Small cells can now make ammonia from nitrogen reliably for days, but they are still far too slow and energy-hungry to replace an ammonia plant.
Whole-cell energy use remains extreme - Pulsed laboratory configurations reported 402.96 and 709.52 MWh/t NH3, corresponding to 1.37% and 0.78% production energy efficiency. Next up - Integrated-cell target comes due (expected Apr 2029).
State of playWhere electrochemical ammonia stands right now
The current stage, the honest metric, and the single threshold that gates the next stage. Each threshold is a falsifiable claim with a named next test.How far up the ladder we've climbed, the honest verdict, and the one thing blocking the next step.
Small cells can now make ammonia from nitrogen reliably for days, but they are still far too slow and energy-hungry to replace an ammonia plant.Verified lithium-mediated cells now combine high selectivity with continuous operation, but no system has simultaneously demonstrated industrial current density, energy efficiency, scale and lifetime.
Make ammonia about ten times fasterReach 400 mA/cm² ammonia partial current Next test: An independently measured integrated stack must pair industrial rate with high energy efficiency, selectivity and long life.
The thresholds that gate the next stageWhat has to happen next
Each threshold is a falsifiable claim with a named next test; the gap chart shows how far today's metric sits from the goal.Each row is one thing that has to be proven — and how far today's number is from the target.
The record behind the verdict
Major events set large; context events set small but never hidden. Everything below the TODAY rule is a schedule, not a result.
A lithium route waits
A lithium route waits begins with lithium route appears. The result established the next question for the field.
Selectivity without trustworthy scale
Selectivity without trustworthy scale begins with high-pressure selectivity reaches 59%. The result established the next question for the field.
Verification before records
Verification before records moved the field from false positives confronted to gas diffusion raises the rate. The results narrowed the next question without closing it.
From tiny cells to continuous flow
From tiny cells to continuous flow moved the field from nearly all current selects ammonia to continuous ambient-pressure flow. The results narrowed the next question without closing it.
The energy and integration test
The energy and integration test moved the field from lithium's efficiency ceiling is quantified to whole-cell energy use remains extreme. The results narrowed the next question without closing it.
Events outside the declared eras
Events outside the declared eras moved the field from a proton shuttle improves output to integrated-cell target comes due. The results narrowed the next question without closing it.
Why the meters read the way they do
The learning curves and comparisons that justify each threshold's percentage. Every series is measured, with the source event linked in the timeline above.
Read the evidence more closely
Definitions, system boundaries and experimental caveats behind the headline record.
01Selectivity is not system efficiency
Faradaic efficiency counts the fraction of charge that forms ammonia. It does not include the voltage penalty, gas preparation, solvent circulation, metal and proton-donor losses, separation or balance-of-plant loads. In the 2023 flow cell, 61% Faradaic efficiency corresponded to 13% full-cell energy efficiency.
02The lithium route carries a thermodynamic penalty
A 2025 analysis estimated a roughly 28% maximum energy efficiency for lithium- or calcium-mediated synthesis because electrodepositing either metal requires a very negative potential. It cites 60% as the US DOE technical-system target, so catalyst and reactor improvements alone may not close the route-level gap.
03The 2024 frontier is grams, not tonnes
The 25 cm² continuous-flow experiment is important evidence of solvent and reactor durability, but it remains a laboratory cell. Its current density, area and production scale cannot be described as commercial ammonia output.
04Nitrate-to-ammonia is a different problem
This dossier tracks reduction of molecular nitrogen, N2. Results starting from nitrate, nitrite or other activated nitrogen feedstocks are excluded because they do not demonstrate breaking the N≡N bond or sourcing nitrogen directly from air.
If the remaining tests pass
Downstream capabilities, drawn dashed because they depend on results not yet in.
Where every number comes from
11 sources — every figure on this page traces to one.
- Nature (2019) - rigorous isotope protocolpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Nature Catalysis (2020) - gas-diffusion electrodenature.com
- Science (2021) - phosphonium proton shuttlepubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Nature (2022) - near-100% current efficiencynature.com
- Science (2023) via DTU - continuous-flow cellorbit.dtu.dk
- ACS Energy Letters (2022) - economic performance targetspubs.acs.org
- Nature (2024) - 300-hour continuous operationnature.com
- Chem (2024) - interpretation of the 300-hour experimentsciencedirect.com
- ACS Energy Letters (2025) - energy-efficiency limitpmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2026) - whole-cell energy accountingpubs.acs.org
- Vinnova (2026) - MACAROON project targetsvinnova.se